![]() ![]() In addition, it is recommended that pesticides are applied with appropriate equipment, optimal dosage, and best timing (Boller et al., 2004 Ervin and Jussaume, 2014 Owen, 2016). When pesticides need to be applied, products that are selective are preferred over broad spectrum pesticides. When required to supplement the preventive practices, the consideration and integration of a broadly diversified set of biological, biotechnical and physical control tactics (e.g., release of natural enemies, pheromone traps or release of sterile insects, and utilization of nets or tillage, respectively) are key to formulation of a diversified, durable, yet flexible IPM strategy that meets social requirements for economic, environmental and human health protection. As part of the IPM approach, key pests are closely monitored, and defined intervention thresholds for pest damage or presence are used to indicate when a direct (responsive) crop protection practice is warranted. ![]() This includes selection of appropriate crop cultivars for the region, management of soil, nutrients, and water, utilization of sustainable pest suppression practices, as well as implementation of practices that foster the abundance and diversity of beneficial species, such as natural enemies, decomposers, and pollinators. The foundation of an IPM approach is the use of indirect (preventive) crop protection practices, which rely on an understanding of the environment, crop, pest and natural enemy biology, and use of optimized farming practices to manage pests. IPM is now recognized as a desirable standard for plant protection internationally (e.g., FAO, European Union Directive 2009/128/EC, US Food Quality Protection Act of 1996). Several organizations, including the FAO, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control (IOBC), played a key role in organizing workshops and publishing guidelines related to IPM and IP (Boller et al., 1997, 2004 Wijnands et al., 2012 FAO, 2018 OECD, 2018). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines IPM to be a “careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment” (FAO, 2018). The concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), a corner stone of Integrated Production (IP), appeared in the 1970's, when it became evident that the overuse of chemical pesticides can have serious negative consequences on the environment and human health. ![]() In 1959, the integrated control concept recognized the many ecological and practical advantages of integrating chemical and biological control strategies for pest management (Stern et al., 1959). By leveraging the experiences gained with these GE crops, understanding the limitations of the technology, and considering the successes and failures of GE traits in IPM plans for different crops and regions, we can improve the sustainability and versatility of IPM plans that incorporate these and future technologies. Additionally, we highlight the importance of community engagement and extension, strong partnership between industry, regulators and farmers, and education and training programs, for achieving long-term success. This paper considers how several GE traits, including those that confer protection against insects by expression of proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), traits that confer tolerance to herbicides, and RNAi-based traits that confer resistance to viral pathogens, can be key elements of a diversified IPM plan for several different crops in both developed and developing countries. However, despite the advantages that GE crops may bring for simplifying the approach and improving efficiency of pest and weed control, there are also challenges for successful implementation and sustainable use. Genetically engineered (GE) crops that provide protection against insects and diseases, or tolerance to herbicides are important tools that complement a diversified integrated pest management (IPM) plan. As the global population continues to expand, utilizing an integrated approach to pest management will be critically important for food security, agricultural sustainability, and environmental protection. ![]()
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